Free Trade Area of the Americas

In the middle of a tug-of-war between the United States and Brazil, the co-chairs of the negotiations, the 8th ministerial meeting of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) will take place Nov. 20-21 in the U.S. city of Miami.

A broad range of civil society groups, including environmentalists, is opposed to the hemisphere-wide agreement.

The 34 countries of North and South America and the Caribbean, with the exception of Cuba, will be represented at the meeting, where ministers will try to clear the way for the free flow of goods and services in the region beginning in 2005.

The United States is reportedly seeking a "broad" agreement that establishes regional rules for intellectual property rights, investment and government procurement, as well as a reduction of tariffs throughout the hemisphere.

Meanwhile, Brazil, the largest Latin American market, is mostly looking for a pact that reduces the barriers standing in the way of market access.

Brazil charges that the U.S. farm subsidies cost the South American giant millions of dollars in losses. But the U.S. government, like Japan and the European Union, does not want to deal with the issue outside of the World Trade Organization.

The gradual elimination of trade and investment barriers in the region is the aim of the FTAA, an initiative that emerged from the 1994 Summit of the Americas. The traditional policy of U.S. aid through financial credits to the developing South has been replaced by the idea of a Canada-to-Argentina free trade zone.

The areas of negotiation within the FTAA include: market access, investment, services, public procurement, dispute settlement, agriculture, intellectual property rights, subsidies, anti-dumping rules, and competition policies.

The "Tripartite Committee", comprising the Inter-American Development Bank, the Organization of American States and the U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, provides analytical, technical and financial support for the FTAA process.

There are many who view the trade agreement with skepticism. A study by Canada's International Development Research Center indicates that the FTAA is considered a means for strengthening the U.S. negotiating position against the European Union and the countries of Southeast Asia.

Friends of the Earth says that the implementation of the FTAA would have negative consequences for the environment. Accords on services, which would range from the oil industry to tourism, would make it difficult for governments to limit investment and to regulate environmental protection.

Groups like the Coalition of Immokalee Workers, based in the U.S. state of Florida, say they fear a repeat of the experience of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), the 1994 treaty between Canada, Mexico and the United States. After the agreement entered into force, they say, the Mexican market was flooded with U.S. corn, driving down prices and forcing small farmers out of business.

But defenders of the treaty point to the fact that Mexico's trade with its big neighbor to the north currently runs at a surplus.

FTAA - IPS Special Coverage
Free Trade Area of the Americas
North American Free Trade Agreement
Friends of the Earth - FTAA environmental impact
Inter-American Development Bank
Organization of American States
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
Coalition of Immokalee Workers
World Trade Organization
International Development Research Center

Transnational Oil Companies

Thirty thousand Indians from the Ecuadorian Amazon were able to put the U.S.-based petroleum giant ChevronTexaco in court on charges of environmental destruction.

The unprecedented trial began Oct. 21 in Ecuador. Tierramérica invites you to check out some Internet sites to learn more about international oil companies.

An assessment report, contracted by the plaintiffs, was presented in October. Global Environmental Operations, entrusted with the study, estimated that the costs for cleaning up the rivers and underground water supplies affected by the ChevronTexaco oil operations would reach 6 billion dollars.

The oil company denies that it is responsible for the contamination in Ecuador and affirms that it follows environmental safety standards.

On its web site, British Petroleum, one of the world's biggest oil firms, states that oil exploitation activities can have environmental impacts, such as altering habitat, contamination, introduction of non-native species, the non-sustainable use of resources and contribution to climate change.

The presence of transnational oil companies in Latin America dates to 1950, when the consumption of fossil fuels in the region began to accelerate rapidly.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the big oil companies, known as "The Seven Sisters" (Exxon, Gulf, Texaco, Mobil, Standard Oil of California, British Petroleum and Royal Dutch Shell), controlled more than 98 percent of petroleum production in the countries that later formed OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

Through their subsidiaries, these companies held exclusive rights over initial exploration and, following the entire process, over the final marketing of petroleum products internationally.

OPEC today controls approximately 40 percent of the world's crude supplies. And through recent acquisitions and mergers, such as British Petroleum, Amoco and Arco, or that of Exxon-Mobil, the biggest private western transnationals will go from controlling 10 percent of the global oil market in 1997 to approximately 25 percent next year.

A report on world energy indicates that in 2002 Saudi Arabia was the world's leading producer of petroleum, followed by the Russian Federation and the United States.

In Latin America, Mexico was the leading oil producer, with Venezuela coming in a close second.

There are many Internet sites that allow web surfers to follow the performance of the oil industry. The web page of the U.S. Department of Energy provides a daily review of prices and production levels on a country-by-country basis.

Global Environmental Operations
ChevronTexaco
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
British Petroleum, Amoco and Arco
Environmental impacts of oil exploration
BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2003
U.S. Department of Energy
Latin Petroleum Analytics
Petroleum reserves - by region

International Year of Rice

In an effort to attend to the problems of hunger and malnutrition, among others, the United Nations General Assembly on Oct. 31 declared 2004 the International Year of Rice. Sixty percent of the world's 1.3 billion poor live in Asia, and rice is their principal sustenance.

According to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), it is urgent to boost rice supplies, given the growing demand by a population with very limited income and whose numbers are growing exponentially.

A study by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) states that the average person in countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam and Burma consume 150 to 200 kilos of rice a year, representing two-thirds or more of their daily calorie intake and approximately 60 percent of their daily protein consumption. "For the poorest, rice is a luxury," says the study.

Among the notable characteristics of this cereal is its low level of sodium and zero cholesterol. Rice is also an important source of vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin and niacin) and minerals (phosphorous, iron and potassium). Rice also has limited amounts of protein, containing eight amino acids essential for the human body.

Worldwide, more than 585 million metric tons of rice were produced in 2001, 84 percent in Asian countries. The vast majority of consumers are in Asia (91 percent). Latin America represents 3.7 percent of consumption and Africa 3.4 percent.

The prediction that growing demands for rice will outstrip production has led organizations like FAO to support the development and cultivation of hybrid rice, produced by cross-pollination of two species. Hybrid varieties discovered in 1974 by Chinese scientists currently produce 15 to 20 percent more than traditional varieties.

Accompanying poverty is malnutrition. According to figures from the non-governmental Bread for the World Institute, there are 840 million people suffering malnutrition worldwide. Of that total, more than 95 percent live in developing countries and more than 153 million are five years old or younger. An estimated six million of these young children die of hunger each year.

Land, water and labor resources are on the decline in rice producing countries, there are those who put forth other arguments in the world hunger debate.

The World Health Organization, for one, states that hunger is the result of poor distribution and inequality, not the lack of food."

International Year of Rice
Rice Facts - Essential Food for the Poor
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
Rice FAQs
International Rice Research Institute
Major Rice Producers
Bread for the World Institute
World Health Organization
Hunger Web
Hybrid Rice for Food Security

Glass Feathers

Magnificently decorated, peacocks carry in their plumage more than just an evolutionary riddle. A new study reveals that the brilliant colors of peacock feathers are the result of a delicate and complex structure similar to glass, and are not pigments, as in other bird species. The new discoveries could serve to improve telecommunications and create new microchips for computers.

The blue royal or common peacock is the most familiar. Its scientific name is Pavo cristatus and it belongs to the Phasianidae family. In the 17th and 18th centuries the English physicist Isaac Newton was already studying the origins of the colors in this majestic bird's feathers.

The neck and chest of the male peacock are a metallic blue-green. The long tail feathers are green-hued and have dark circles towards the tips, resembling eyes. During courtship, the male displays his tail feathers, which measure around 1.2 meters, forming a broad fan as he slowly struts around the female, who generally feigns indifference.

The reproductive unit usually consists of one adult male and one to three females. Studies show that the most colorfully decorated males are generally chosen over less showy males. In peacocks, more ostentatious plumage is linked to a stronger immune system.

Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution, suggested in 1871 that this preference on the part of females in selecting their mate is another form of natural selection.

The blue royal peacock is native to India and Southeast Asia, where they can be found in the wild, and in nature parks. These birds feed on snails, spiders and insects, as well as grains and plants.

In the times of King Salomon, peacocks were presented in offerings alongside gold and silver. Today, they have been domesticated and can be found around the world, and are even kept as pets.

Scientists admire these unique birds, whose genetic code has already been deciphered, and is sure to hold even more secrets.

Peacock plumage study
North American Breeding Bird Survey
Isaac Newton
Peacock DNA studies
Charles Darwin

Green Transportation

The biggest environmental-automotive event in the world, Challenge Bibendum, highlighted the latest technological advances in the field of so-called "green cars", which represent an attempt to reconcile mobility and environmental sustainability.

This year's exposition drew several car, truck and bus manufacturers that work with alternative fuels, and low levels of pollutant emissions.

Organized by the Michelin Group, a tire manufacturer, participants compete for awards in the categories of lowest emissions and noise, and best performance, safety and design. The vehicles are subject to a series of tests by a technical team.

According to a study by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, global population growth (expected to reach 8.1 billion people by 2030) and increased urbanization are the two factors that will dramatically increase pressure on the world's ecosystems, in large part due to greater transportation demand.

Dependence on petroleum, a non-renewable energy source, for driving the automotive industry, air pollution and its effects on human health, and emissions of greenhouse gases are just some areas of concern.

In the United States, the number of vehicles utilizing alternative fuels grew from 455,000 in 2000 to more than 518,000 in 2002. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) publishes a guide that lists the least contaminating vehicles, the ones with best gas mileage.

Cars with fuel cells, hybrid vehicles (gas/electricity), electric and diesel are some of the initiatives in the different sectors of the automotive industry that aim to lay the groundwork for the future of ground transportation.

Several factors can make a car more environmentally efficient. Some qualities that define the automobiles of the future include insulation in the roof and floor to cut down the need for air conditioning, ultra-light tires to conserve energy, and a double-layered air circulation system. Such is the case of the gas-electric hybrid Toyota Prius 2004, winner of the Challenge Bibendum.

Japan: Hybrid Cars in Race against Climate Change
Challenge Bibendum
Challenge Bibendum tests
Michelin Group
Greenhouse gases
Electric cars
Diesel engines
EPA guide to green vehicles
Hybrid vehicles - questions and answers
Alternative energies FAQ
Toyota Prius 2004
Toyota: Hybrid system

Whale Hunting Season

Thirty-six dead whales is the result of Iceland's whale hunting season, which ended in the first week of October, according to the International Fund for Animal Welfare.

With the renewal of the hunt after a 14-year moratorium, the European island nation dealt a blow to the efforts of whale conservationists -- and possibly to its own national economy.

Despite its recent "re-admission" in 2002 to the International Whaling Commission (IWC), created in 1946 to regulate the development of the whaling industry, Iceland decided to take to the seas to hunt Minke whale in August of this year.

The country thus made use of an IWC exception that allows hunting of certain species for scientific purposes, which environmentalists consider a dangerous loophole.

The move could be counterproductive for Iceland, where whale-watching excursions for tourists has been a growing industry. IFAW reports that 40 percent of the people who visit Iceland take a whale watching tour, generating around eight million dollars in revenues annually.

It was in the 11th century that Spain's Basque fishermen began commercial whale hunting. By the 20th century, with high-tech hunting methods, the world's whale populations were nearly wiped out.

IFAW estimates that Norway and Japan kill more than 1,300 whales each year. The IWC has established quotas for the number of whales of the various species that may be hunted, and there are also sanctuaries, set aside to protect the sites where whales feed and reproduce.

Hunters are not the only danger that whales face. Climate change, the thinning of the atmospheric ozone layer, pollution and sonar are also threats to the giant sea mammals.

In June of this year, the IWC approved the Berlin Initiative, which aims to organize efforts to protect whales and dolphins. Eventually, a combination of protective measures and more advantageous economic alternatives than hunting could emerge -- so that the world does not lose forever the song of these intelligent and majestic beings.

International Fund for Animal Welfare
International Whaling Commission
Whale Sanctuaries
Whale Song
Institute for Cetacean Research - Japan
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol has suffered a setback that threatens its very existence. Russian president Vladimir Putin stated Sep. 29 that his country is undecided as to whether it will ratify the international accord for curbing emissions of greenhouse gases.

The signature of Russia alone, which hosted the latest United Nations Conference on Climate Change, would be enough for the Protocol to enter into force.

Established in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that has set a goal that by 2008 to 2012 the industrialized countries will reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by five percent below their 1990 rates. Failure to meet the target could force a country to cut back its industrial production.

Although the initial draft of the Protocol lacked specifics, beginning with the Marrakech meetings in late 2001, five main points were defined: legally binding commitments for industrialized countries; alternative implementation methods to emissions reductions (joint implementation); minimization of impacts in developing countries, including assistance to diversify their economies; reports and assessment by a team of experts and compliance evaluated by a committee.

As a complement to the 1992 U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, the first international agreement to deal with the issue, the Kyoto Protocol is a response to growing concern that gases emitted by human activities, particularly carbon dioxide, contribute to the greenhouse effect and to climate change.

More frequent heat waves, floods, and drought are predicted as a result of the average global temperature increasing by one to 3.5 degrees centigrade by 2001, says the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, founded in 1988, and entrusted with providing scientific information for the Kyoto Protocol.

The Protocol will take effect once it is ratified by 55 countries, including those responsible for 55 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. As of Sep. 29, 2003, 84 countries had signed and 119 had ratified or adhered to the protocol, but the refusal of the United States -- which alone produces 25 percent of the world's greenhouse gases -- means the survival of the treaty falls to Russia.

Washington based its withdrawal from the Protocol on arguments that curbing emissions would be too much of an economic burden and that the scientific research linking emissions with global warming are questionable.

The aim of the Putin government is to double Russia's gross domestic product (GDP) within a decade, bringing with it an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, and thus requiring costly investment if the country is to meet the Protocol goals. Without Russia, the future of the Kyoto Protocol is uncertain indeed.

Kyoto Protocol
U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change
Marrakech Accords
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPCC Summary Report
Signatories of the Kyoto Protocol - as of Sep. 29, 2003
Understanding Climate Change: A Beginner's Guide to the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
World Meteorological Organization
One thousand years climate history
Joint Implementation - Forestry Congress

Human Cloning

The InterAcademy Panel, comprising 60 international scientific organizations, has called on all countries to ban human cloning experiments. The appeal reflects the viewpoint of a broad swath of the scientific community, warning that the cloning process -- which has been conducted with animals -- deteriorates genetic mechanisms and would cause human suffering.

Many of the cloned mammals die before reaching maturity due to "genetic errors" or deficiencies in their embryonic development. This makes techniques for cloning human non-viable, says the panel.

Dolly the sheep, the world's first cloned animal, in April 2003 became part of the Royal Scotland Museum in Edinburgh, two months after having been euthanized because she suffered a progressive pulmonary disease.

Several countries have proved able to clone mammals. In 2001, Brazil became the first developing country to clone a live animal, with the birth of Victoria, a calf, in an experiment conducted by the Brazilian agro-research enterprise EMBRAPA.

The InterAcademy Panel, however, does not oppose the use of cloning techniques for purposes of scientific research.

With no global consensus on the issue, the use of embryonic cells, or mother cells, for medical purposes has been gaining ground in many countries. These cells have the capacity to create any type of tissue in the body.

Researchers at the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh, Scotland, plan to experiment with special cells, extracted from embryos left over from the artificial fertilization process that couples may opt for when they cannot conceive through natural means.

The International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) says it is up to each country to decide on whether to permit or ban studies using embryonic cells.

The conclusions of the InterAcademy Panel were covered in a recent edition of Science magazine, which suggests that it may never be possible to copy human beings using cloning methods.

InterAcademy Panel
UNESCO Bioethics
Clonaid
National Museums of Scotland
Roslin Institute
Science Magazine

The Cartagena Protocol

On September 11 the Cartagena Protocol entered into force, the first international treaty on the transfer, management and use of organisms modified using biotechnology techniques. It is hoped that the treaty will foment the safe use of transgenics, an issue that has awakened a heated global debate, pitting the United States against Europe.

Adopted in 2000 by the parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the treaty seeks to make international trade in genetically modified organisms (GMOs) more transparent through security measures that meet the needs of consumers, industry and, most of all, the environment.

The Protocol is intended to prevent potential conflicts between trade rules and the international biosecurity regimen, says a guide to the treaty provided by the World Conservation Union (IUCN).

The process of reconciling the legitimate interests of trade, biosafety and others has not been easy. There is a bitter dispute between those who see biotechnology as the road to food security and those who point to ethical, environmental, health and social reasons to establish tight controls for GMOs.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), issued a Statement on Biotechnology in March 2000, maintaining that this branch of science offers powerful tools for sustainable development of agriculture, fishing and forestry, as well as for the food industry.

Meanwhile, environmental groups like Greenpeace believe that the biological wealth inherent in traditional crops is a global natural heritage threatened by genetic contamination. They blame biotech transnationals like Monsanto, the world's leading seed producer, of pressuring governments to discard mechanisms for controlling transgenic products.

And the United States and the European Union are at the forefront of the dispute. Last July, the European Parliament adopted a law requiring all foods containing GMOs to be labeled so that consumers are aware of what they are buying and eating.

The United States and other producers of transgenic crops, including Argentina, are demanding that the World Trade Organization (WTO) suspend the ban on sales of genetically modified foods in the EU, imposed in 1999.

In June of 2003, the republic of Palau became the 50th country to ratify the Cartagena Protocol on biosafety, allowing the treaty to enter into force. The first meeting of the parties to the Protocol will take place in Kuala Lumpur in February 2004.

Cartagena Protocol
Convention on Biological Diversity
IUCN
FAO on Biotechnology
REDBIO
Monsanto
Greenpeace
WTO - dispute on biotech products

World Ozone Day

The scientific community estimates that the ozone layer, which filters the ultraviolet rays of the Sun, could recover its density by the middle of this century. Recent studies show an improvement, a closing of the so-called ozone hole, but only in the upper stratosphere.

Efforts to limit production and use of ozone depleting gases must continue, and that is the point of World Ozone Day, observed every Sep. 16.

A report from the American Geophysical Union (AGU) found that the depletion of the ozone in the upper stratosphere -- 35 to 45 km above the earth's surface -- has slowed since 1997.

But the authors state that only a small percentage of ozone is located at that level, and the problem of ozone depletion remains serious.

Ozone is a harmful contaminant in the atmosphere closest to earth, but in the stratosphere, it protects the planet from excessive solar radiation. The process of restoring this protective shield should continue with the progressive elimination of ozone-depleting gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

The Montreal Protocol, signed Sep. 16, 1987, limits the use of substances that damage the ozone layer. In 1985, the international community agreed on the Vienna Convention to protect the ozone layer from CFCs, and other gases like methyl bromide, halons and carbon tetrachloride.

Since the scientists Mario Molina, of Mexico, and F. Rowland, of the United States, warned of the role of CFCs in the depletion of stratospheric ozone, concern about environmental and health consequences have led to international campaigns, and the Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded the two experts in 1995.

The United Nations Environment Program's OzonAction website underscores that the international fight to protect the ozone layer is a success story among global environmental campaigns.

Since 1985, studies have revealed the existence of the ozone hole over Antarctica.

In 2000, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) reported that the hole had reached a record size of 28.3 million square km, three times bigger than Australia or the United States, including Alaska.

But in 2002, abnormally warm climate conditions produced the smallest ozone hole since 1988.

UNEP - Ozone Secretariat
Vienna Convention
Montreal Protocol
American Geophysical Union
FAQs about Ozone
OzonAction Program
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

Protected Areas

There are 100,000 protected areas around the world, which together would cover an area larger than China and India combined. But very few provide benefits to the communities that inhabit them. Some 2,500 delegates are meeting in Durban, South Africa until Sep. 17 to discuss the problem, under the auspices of the Fifth World Congress on Protected Areas.

Organized by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), it is the largest forum for drafting an international agenda on protected areas. The main objective is to promote national policies to preserve biodiversity, with "benefits beyond borders."

Land and water ecosystems of biological importance -- due to their species diversity -- have been included in the category of national parks, landscapes, reserves, or natural monuments, set aside to protect a country's biological heritage.

But the latest concept of "protected area" takes into account wildlife areas and the notion of sustainable use reserves, according to the World Commission on Protected Areas, comprising a network of environmental experts.

In May 1997 the first Latin American Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas was held in Santa Marta, Colombia, where participants assessed progress and limitations in applying the concept of the Biosphere Reserve in Latin America.

In March of this year, the First Mesoamerican Congress on Protected Areas took place in Managua, Nicaragua, under the theme of "promoting conservation for development and integration."

World Congress on Protected Areas
IUCN - World Conservation Union
World Commission on Protected Areas
Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
World Bank - on protected areas

WTO on the Road to Cancun

The August 30 agreement on granting poor countries access to low-cost medicines was among the few items of good news on the rocky road towards the World Trade Organization's Fifth Ministerial Conference, to begin in the Mexican city of Cancun on Sep. 10. Disagreements persist in nearly all other areas of the ambitious negotiating agenda, including agricultural trade, services and investment. The environment, meanwhile, is but a marginal issue.

The WTO, founded in January 1995 as a result of the accords of the Uruguay Round of trade talks (1986 to 1994), will gather the trade ministers from its 146 member states in the Caribbean coast city of Cancun, Mexico. The officials have four days to try to overcome the obstacles standing in the way of achieving the goals set out in the Doha Development Agenda.

Previous ministerial meets took place in Singapore, Geneva and Seattle. The latest was in the Qatar capital, in late 2001, and now the ministers are getting ready to head to Cancun to continue the WTO-led process of global trade liberalization.

The WTO has no agreement specifically dedicated to the environment, but it does have a Committee on Trade and Environment, which discusses, for example the trade provisions in multilateral environmental accords, "green" labels on export products and the representation of environmental groups in trade talks.

The United Nations Environment Program and representatives from some international environmental agreements will have an ad hoc presence at the Cancun conference.

In the UNEP document on Trade and Environment, the agency's director, Klaus Toepfer, calls for more active UN participation in trade negotiations, and urges greater emphasis on issues such as trade in environmental goods and services, as well as curbing the negative environmental impacts of agricultural trade subsidies.

The compatibility of WTO rules and the standards set by environmental treaties is a crucial matter. There are some 20 multilateral environmental accords, such as the Montreal Protocol on reducing ozone-depleting gases, which sets restrictions for the production, consumption and trade of aerosols that contain CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).

Likewise, the Basel Convention monitors trade and transport of toxic waste, and the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), regulates commerce in wildlife.

Multilateral organizations like the World Bank, specialized groups like the Trade Forum, and the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, as well as representatives from a broad spectrum of civil society groups will also be on hand in Cancun, proposing different approaches and alternatives to the international trade negotiations.

WTO Fifth Ministerial Conference
Doha Development Agenda
WTO Committee on Trade and Environment
United Nations Environment Program
UNEP Document on Trade and Environment
Montreal Protocol on Ozone-Depleting Materials
Secretariat of the Basel Convention
CITES
Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
World Bank
World Social Forum
International Trade Forum

The Cockroach

The evolutionary persistence of the cockroach over hundreds of millions of years -- in which it hasn't much changed in appearance -- while the planet has undergone dramatic transformations is an impressive feat, but not enough to win people's affection.

Indeed, the feeling of disgust towards cockroaches is practically universal. Perhaps contributing to the negative image is the fact that cockroaches carry bacteria and microorganisms that cause illness among humans.

Geologists from the University of Ohio, in the United States, reported in 2001 the discovery in a mine of the largest complete fossil of a cockroach that inhabited the plant 300 million years ago, 55 million years before the first dinosaurs. The " Artopleura apustulatus" measured 8 cm long.

These resistant bugs play an important ecological role by incorporating nutrients into the environment. Cockroaches consume organic matter, and their waste in turn feeds microscopic organisms that turn it into humus, enriching the earth's soils.

But their resistance is just what makes them so frustrating. Scientists in many countries are at work to develop insecticides to control cockroach populations where they have become a problem.

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the research arm of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, identified the key mechanisms for insecticide resistance developed by the German cockroach, Blatella germanica, one of the most common cockroach species around the world, measuring 12 to 16 mm.

The female produces 18 to 48 eggs every 20 to 25 days and, like all cockroach species, it can carry bacteria and viruses that cause diarrhea, hepatitis, salmonella and tuberculosis, and the insect itself can trigger allergies.

ARS entomologist Steven M. Valles discovered a substance called esterase in several cockroach species that made them resistant to pesticides.

Valles's studies revealed that mutations in the proteins of the insect's nervous system were related to the ability to tolerate poisons.

It is of little comfort to know that of the more than 4,000 cockroach species that inhabit the planet, only a handful choose to share our homes.

U.S. Agricultural Research Service - cockroach resistance
The Cockroach Home Page
Cockroaches and evolution
Cockroach directory

Addictions - Tobacco

The death toll from tobacco use could reach one billion this century, according to estimates by the International Union Against Cancer (UICC), a network of 30 organizations from around the world.

If current rates of consumption continue, the number of deaths attributed to tobacco -- 100 million in the past hundred years -- will skyrocket, says the World Health Organization (WHO).

The alarm was sounded during the World Conference on Tobacco, held in Helsinki Aug 3-8. Around 2,000 experts from more than 100 countries studied international policies and proposals from anti-tobacco groups. They also took a look at the possibilities of achieving the goals set by the Convention on Tobacco Control.

The Convention, signed in May by 192 countries, includes among its objectives the total ban on advertising of cigarettes and other tobacco products.

A study by the Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO), explains that tobacco consumption has been a part of human cultures for hundreds of years, but it wasn't until the past century that cigarettes began to be manufactured on a massive scale.

Smoking became widespread and today one out of three adults in the world smokes.

The U.S.-based center Science, Tobacco and You explains that nicotine is the cause of tobacco addiction. Nicotine is an active ingredient in cigarette smoke. It is an alkaloid that produces pleasant sensations and affects the chemistry of the brain, says the center's website.

In 1492, when Christopher Columbus reached the New World, he didn't pay much attention to the tobacco plant, native to the Americas. He was focused on finding gold. But some of his crew quickly developed the habit of smoking… and the rest is history.

World Health Organization - Tobacco Free Initiative
International Union Against Cancer
Framework Convention on Tobacco Control - final text
Pan-American Health Organization
Science, Tobacco and You
ASH - Action on Smoking and Health
UICC - report

The Telescope

Since Galileo Galilei developed the telescope in 1610, ongoing efforts to perfect this technological tool have been key to advancing knowledge of the Solar System and of the cosmos. For many, the giant steps modern science has made as a result feed the fantasy of conquering outer space.

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is currently building a telescope that will be capable of detecting the first light of the universe, which appeared an estimated 11 billion years ago.

The James E. Webb space telescope, named in honor of the man who led NASA's Apollo missions to the moon, is under construction and slated to be up and operating in 2010.

Costing 824.8 million dollars, the Webb telescope will be used to peer into farthest regions recorded by the Hubble telescope, a distance of between 10 billion and 11 billion light years. The telescope will be placed 1.5 million km from Earth at the Lagrange Point 2, a site of equilibrium between the gravitational pulls of the Earth and Sun.

Many astronomers believe the new Webb will shed light on the big mystery of how the stars and galaxies were formed hundreds of millions of years after the Big Bang, the explosion that theory says gave rise to the universe.

The Webb project began eight years ago, and is to replace the Hubble, the world's most important space telescope to date, and bearing the name of U.S. astronomer Edwin Hubble, considered the father of modern astrophysics.

Data gathered by the Hubble helped scientists to locate the oldest known planet, estimated to be 13 billion years old.

The Hubble was placed in orbit in 1990 for a 20-year mission to end in 2010.

There are several other space telescope projects underway around the world. Next year the Canary Islands Telescope is slated to begin operating, financed by Spain, Mexico and the United States.

Telescopes have helped astrophysicists get to know the cosmos, including the discovery of giant black holes, the formative stages of solar systems, and other phenomenon that contribute towards dating the origins of the universe. But not all seen through the telescope are wonders of the cosmos.

But not all seen through the telescope are wonders of the cosmos. There is plenty of space garbage too -- artificial objects like defunct satellites and used rockets, and other material that has come from humanity's exploration of what lies beyond.

NASA
James E. Webb Space Telescope
PBS - Big Bang, deep space timeline
Big Bang Theory
Hubble Telescope
Canary Islands Telescope
Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope


Bats

The bat is not a blind flying rodent, like many people seem to believe. It is a mammal of the Chiroptera order and serves many essential functions in nature: the bat pollinates plants, distributes seeds and controls insect populations.

Social rejection of bats is unfounded, says one website, stressing that this flying species controls pests in crops and in forests and adds diversity to the world's fauna. Destruction of bats' natural refuges, alteration of their habitat and widespread use of chemical pesticides are among the main threats they face.

To date, 1,075 bat species have been registered around the world, 150 more than were known to exist in 1990.

The "new" species, identified thanks to DNA sequencing techniques, have mostly been found in Latin America, Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands.

The most ancient fossils of bats date back 50 million years, but they were not all that different from the bats we see today.

These members of the Chiroptera order range greatly in size and appearance, and there is even a hairless species.

Some scientists maintain that primates (lemurs, monkeys and humans) and bats share a common ancestor similar to a shrew.

In tropical zones, seed dispersal and pollination by bats are vital for the survival of rain forests, says the website of UK-based Bat Conservation International.

The guano bat, which measures some 93 mm long and weighs 15 grams, relies on its big ears to locate its prey. This species inhabits caves ranging from the southern United States, through Mexico, Central America, and down into central Chile and Argentina.

The U.S.-based conservationist Wildlife Trust says the largest known colony of guano bats is found at Bracken Cave, north of San Antonio, in the state of Texas. It is home to around 20 million bats that are capable of consuming 250 tons of insects each night.

In the northeast Mexican state of Nuevo León is La Boca Cave, which at one time held the largest guano bat colony, but 95 percent of its population has been lost in the past decade, says the Wildlife Trust website.

Bats are nocturnal and use a specialized system known as echolocation to navigate the dark skies. They emit a high-pitched sound, which bounces off even the tiniest objects and reaching the bats' sensitive ears, allowing them to capture their insect prey.

Bat Conservation International
Wildlife Trust
Hanford Reach National Monument
Silver-haired bat

Birds of Prey

With their powerful hooked beaks they tear the meat from the kill, which they capture thanks to incredibly keen eyesight. These attributes apply to vultures, eagles and hawks, as well as other species known as birds of prey, or raptors.

Through the 1960s, human activities took a tragic toll. The birds' nests were destroyed, the hatchlings were killed, adult birds hunted down -- an apparent attempt to exterminate them.

According to the World Wildlife Fund, "Raptors have existed for 75 million years and today there are over 450 species including eagles, hawks, falcons, vultures, buzzards, ospreys, harriers, kites and owls. They live in most habitats in virtually all areas of the world."

The website of the World Center for Birds of Prey tells the story of the "triumphant return" to Panama of "Ancon", a harpy eagle that the Central American country loaned to the U.S.-based Peregrine Fund.

For 10 years, Ancon -- alongside his mate "Olafa" -- was the focus of a team of scientists who developed techniques for raising endangered birds in captivity.

Experts consider the harpy eagle an indicator species, because the fate of the bird reflects the health of the ecosystem in which it lives. Because it is a predator, it is at the top of the food chain. The bird's disappearance means that it does not have the food sources or habitat necessary to survive.

WWF- Birds of Prey
The Peregrine Fund
Audubon Adopt-a-Bird
The Raptor Center
Yahoo! Directory - Birds of Prey